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ELECTRICAL CONDUCTION OF HEART 2007-08-01 09:59:00 The normal electrical conduction in the heart allows the impulse that is generated by the sinoatrial node (SA node) of the heart to be propagated to (and stimulate) the myocardium (Cardiac muscle). After myocardium is stimulated, it contracts. It is the ordered stimulation of the myocardium that allows efficient contraction of the heart, thereby allowing blood to be pumped throughout the body.Requirements for effective pumpingIn order to maximize efficiency of contraction and cardiac output, the conduction system of the heart has:1.) Substantial atrial to ventricular delayThis allows the atria to completely empty their contents into the ventricles; simultaneous contraction would cause inefficient filling and backflow. The atria are electrically isolated from the ventricles, connected only via the AV node which briefly delays the signal.2.)Coordinated contraction of ventricular cellsThe ventricles must maximize systolic pressure to force blood through the circulation, so all the ventric
SINOATRIAL NODE & AV NODE 2007-08-01 09:29:00 The sinoatrial node (SA node or the sinus node) is the impulse generating (pacemaker) tissue located in the right atrium of the heart. It is a group of cells positioned on the wall of the right atrium, near the entrance of the superior vena cava. These cells are modified cardiac myocytes. They possess some contractile filaments, though they do not contract.NATURAL PACEMAKER1.)Although all of the heart's cells possess the ability to generate the electrical impulses (or action potentials) that trigger cardiac contraction, the sinoatrial node is what normally initiates it, simply because it generates impulses slightly faster than the other areas with pacemaker potential. Because cardiac myocytes, like all muscle cells, have refractory periods following contraction during which additional contractions cannot be triggered, their pacemaker potential is overridden by the sinoatrial node.2.)Cells in the SA node will naturally discharge (create action potentials) at about 100 times/minute. Bec
WORKING OF HEART 2007-08-01 09:08:00 Our heart beats regularly and rhythmically and pumps a certain amount of blood (called cardiac output) to different parts of the body. The contraction of the heart is SYSTOLE whereas relaxation is DIASTOLE. One contraction and relaxation forms a heart beat. Each cardiac cycle lasts for about 0.8 second.HEART WORKING1.)The cardiac cycle begins with the initiation of the artial systole by the electrochemical stimulus tramsmitted through the sino-artial (SA) node (i.e. natural pacemaker). The stimulus is transmitted through atrio-ventricular (AV) node to the Bundle of His which spreads and forms the Purkinje fibre on the ventricle. During this artial contraction blood from auricles is forced into the sides of the ventricles. Bicuspid and tricuspid valves prevent the reverse flow of blood.2.)The ventricles now undergo a powerful contraction (ventricular systole). The ventricular blood pressure increases and the blood enters the Aorta and pulmonary arteries through the semilunar valves.3.)
CARDIAC PACEMAKERS & DEFIBRILLATORS - BOOK REVIEW 2007-08-01 00:32:00 Book Title : Cardiac Pacemakers and Defibrillators 2nd EditionAuthor : Charles J.lovePublisher : Landes BioscienceBOOK DESCRIPTION This book is intended for the physician, nurse, student or technician who occasionally comes in contact with patients who have implanted heart rhythm control devices. It is meant as a reference and basic resource to provide quick explanations and answers to situations that are likely to be encountered relating to pacemakers and implantable cardioverter defibrillators. The terminology and language unique to the professionals who deal with these devices is explained and examples of basic and advanced pacemaker function are covered. Figures are used extensively to show examples of normal and abnormal device function. Common malfunctions are described and an approach to the diagnosis and remedy of these problems is presented. The indications for the use of pacemakers and defibrillators are discussed as well as the contraindications. Sur
ECG MADE EASY - BOOK REVIEW 2007-08-05 09:34:00 Book Title : ECG MADE EASYAuthor : John R.HamptonPublisher : Churchill LivingStoneBook Descriptioni.)This popular text provides a readable guide to ECG interpretation, with an emphasis throughout on straightforward practical application. This is the ideal pocket reference for a wide range of trainee health professionals. Now includes sample full 12-lead ECG's for reference.ii.)This highly respected book is a simple, readable guide to the accurate identification and interpretation of abnormal electrocardiogram (ECG) patterns for medical students, nurses and junior doctors. The emphasis throughout is on the straightforward practical application of the ECG. It will prove useful to all medical and health care staff who require clear, basic knowledge about the ECG.CONTENTS1.)ABOUT ECGi.)What To Expect from ECGii.)Electricity of Heart iii.)Shape of ECGiv.)Recording of ECGiv.)Shape of QRS Complexv.)How to REport ECGvi.)ECG Interpretation2.)CONDUCTION & ITS PROBLEMSi.)Conduct
ABC of CLINICAL ECG - Book Review 2007-08-05 08:48:00 Book Title : ABC of Clinical Electro-CardiographyAuthors : Francis Morris, June Edhouse, William Brandy, John CammPublisher : BMJ BooksBOOK DESCRIPTION1.)Electrocardiography is an essential tool in diagnosing cardiac disorders. This book allows readers to become familiar with the wide range of patterns seen in the electrocardiogram both normal and of the different conditions. Edited and written by leading experts, the ABC of Clinical electrocardiography is a valuable text for anyone managing patients with heart disorders, both in general practice and in hospitals.2.)This introductory reference will familiarize novice and experienced clinicians with the range of electrocardiogram patterns seen in clinical practice. Early chapters cover basic terminology and leads, rate, rhythm, and cardiac axis, while later chapters cover patterns seen in specific conditions and give information on pediatric electrocardiography and pacemakers.CONTENTS1.) Leads, Rate, Rhythn & Cardiac axis2.
ECG NOTES - BOOK REVIEW 2007-08-06 23:31:00 Book Title : ECG NOTES - INTERPRETATION & MANAGEMENT GUIDEAuthor : Shirley A.JonesPublisher : F.A.Davis CompanyBOOK REVIEW1.)ECG Notes is a quick-lookup reference for ECG interpretation and management. This indispensable guide presents information in an easy-to-use format. * 208 pages, 155 color illustrations * Latest CPR and ACLS guidelines * "Clinical Tips" provide essential clinical implications throughput the guide * Over 100 arrhythmias analyzed in easy-to-read 6-second strips * Covers 12-lead, emergency meds and skills plus lead placement and cardiac A&P.2.)A Davis's Notes book, ECG Notes is a quick-lookup reference for ECG interpretation and management. This indispensable pocket guide presents the basics (anatomy and physiology of the cardiovascular system, electrical conduction system of the heart, basic ECG concepts and components), ACLS and CPR algorithms, emergency medications, and comprehensive information on monitoring leads and interpretation of over 100 EC
CARDIAC ACTION POTENTIAL 2007-08-06 14:14:00 1.) The cardiac action potential is a specialized action potential in the heart, with unique properties necessary for function of the electrical conduction system of the heart.2.)The cardiac action potential differs significantly in different portions of the heart. This differentiation of the action potentials allows the different electrical characteristics of the different portions of the heart. For instance, the specialized conduction tissue of the heart has the special property of depolarizing without any external influence. This is known as automaticity.3.)The electrical activity of the specialized conduction tissues are not apparent on the surface electrocardiogram (ECG). This is due to the relatively small mass of these tissues compared to the myocardium.CARDIAC POTENTIAL1.)Cardiac muscle has some similarities to neurons and skeletal muscle, as well as important unique properties. Like a neuron, a given myocardial cell has a negative membrane potential when at rest. 2.)Stimulatio
ACTION POTENTIAL 2007-08-06 09:19:00 i.)An action potential is a "spike" of electrical discharge that travels along the membrane of a cell. Action potentials are essential features of animal life, rapidly carrying information within and between tissues. They also occur in some plants. ii.)Action potentials can be created by many types of cells, but are used most extensively by the nervous system for communication between neurons and for transmitting information from neurons to other body tissues such as muscles and glands.iii.)Action potentials are not the same in all cell types and can even vary in their properties at different locations in the same cell. For example, cardiac action potentials are significantly different from the action potentials in most neurons. This article is primarily concerned with the "typical" action potential of axons.ACTION POTENTIAL DIAGRAMPICTURE A. A schematic view of an idealized action potential illustrates its various phases as the action potential passes a point on a cell membrane.PICTUR
AMBULATORY BLOOD PRESSURE MONITOR 2007-08-10 18:24:00 Ambulatory blood pressure monitoring (ABPM) measures blood pressure at regular intervals throughout the day and night. It is believed to be able to reduce the white coat hypertension effect.
AMBULATORY HOLTER MONITOR - WORKING 2007-08-10 16:33:00 The Holter monitor The Holter monitor records the heart's electrical activity through electrodes placed on the chest. The electrical impulses are then transmitted to an amplifier, which records them on a small magnetic tape or digital recorder for later review by a physician. This test provides the doctor with important information about patient's heart and its rhythm and can help identify the cause of such symptoms as chest pain, palpitations or dizziness.The Working of Holter monitor An ambulatory electrocardiogram is a portable recording of the heart rhythm taken during patient's normal activities. It is entirely painless and none of the equipment enters his/her body. It monitors his/her heart's electrical activity as detected on the surface of the skin, transmits this signal to an amplifier, and saves a record of the electrocardiogram on a small magnetic tape or digital recorder for subsequent review and analysis. Following completion of the monitoring period, the tape is scann
AMBULATORY HOLTER MONITOR 2007-08-10 15:23:00 In medicine, a Holter monitor (also called an ambulatory electrocardiography device), named after its inventor, Dr. Norman J. Holter, is a portable device for continuously monitoring the electrical activity of the heart for 24 hours or more. Its extended recording period is sometime useful for observing occasional cardiac arrhythmias that would be difficult to identify in a shorter period of time. For patients having more transient symptoms, a cardiac event monitor which can be worn for a month or more can be used.The Holter monitor is a portable electrocardiogram (EKG) that monitors the electrical activity of an ambulatory (freely moving) patient's heart while the person goes about daily activities. There are a few reasons a physician might request that a patient wear a Holter monitor, but the most common is to diagnose an abnormal heart rhythm (arrhythmia). They are also sometimes used to monitor existing pacemakers, diagnose a lack of oxygen-rich blood flowing to the heart (cardia
AMBULATORY MONITORING 2007-08-10 13:32:00 Due to advance in technology, especially computer sciences, ambulatory monitoring with medical instruments has increasingly become an important tool in diagnosis of diseases and medical conditions.The ideal device for ambulatory monitoring should be consistently sensitive, accurate, lightweight,non invasive, and easy to use.DEVICES-------------------------------- USESHolter Monitor--------------------------Cardiac Arrhythmia & IschemiaAmbulatory BP Monitor---------------HyperTension & HypoTensionAmbulatory Glucose Monitor---------Hyperglycemia & Hypoglycemia
AFFINITY CHROMATOGRAPHY 2007-08-10 09:38:00 Affinity chromatography is a chromatographic method of separating biochemical mixtures, based on a highly specific biologic interaction such as that between antigen and antibody, enzyme and substrate, or receptor and ligand. Affinity chromatography combines the size fractionation capability of gel permeation chromatography with the ability to design a stationary phase that reversibly binds to a known subset of molecules.Uses1.)Affinity chromatography can be used to:2.)Purify and concentrate a molecule from a mixture into a buffering solution3.)Reduce the amount of a molecule in a mixture4.)Discern what biological compounds bind to a particular molecule, such as drugsPrincipleUsually the starting point is an undefined heterogeneous group of molecules in solution, such as a cell lysate, growth medium or blood serum. The molecule of interest will have a well known and defined property which can be exploited during the affinity purification process. The process itself can be thought of as
ACTINOTHERAPY 2007-08-10 09:28:00 1.)Actinotherapy: Use of radiation such as UV and x-rays to treat conditions such as skin disorders.2.)It is also the treatment of disease (especially cancer) by exposure to radiation from a radioactive substance.
ABLATION 2007-08-10 07:57:00 Ablation is defined as the removal of material from the surface of an object by vaporization, chipping, or other erosive processes. The term occurs in space physics associated with atmospheric reentry, in glaciology, medicine and passive fire protection.ABLATION IN MEDICINEIn medicine, ablation is the same as removal of a part of biological tissue, usually by surgery, and more recently using other modalities such as radiofrequency ablation and cryoablation. The American Heritage Stedman's Medical Dictionary defines ablation as "Removal of a body part or the destruction of its function, as by a surgery, disease, or noxious substance.SURFACE ABLATIONi.)Surface ablation in the skin (also called resurfacing, because it induces regeneration) can be carried out by chemicals (peeling) or by lasers. Its purpose is to remove skin spots, aged skin, wrinkles, thus rejuvenating it.ii.) Surface ablation is also employed in otolaryngology for several kinds of surgery, such as for snoring. iii.)Abla
ELECTROCARDIOGRAM 2007-08-08 14:56:00 1.)An electrocardiogram (ECG or EKG, abbreviated from the German Elektrokardiogram) is a graphic produced by an electrocardiograph, which records the electrical activity of the heart over time. 2.)Analysis of the various waves and normal vectors of depolarization and repolarization yields important diagnostic information.ADVANTAGES1.)It is the gold standard for the diagnosis of cardiac arrhythmias.2.)It guides therapy and risk stratification for patients with suspected acute myocardial infarction.3.)It helps detect electrolyte disturbances (e.g. hyperkalemia and hypokalemia).4.)It allows for the detection of conduction abnormalities (e.g. right and left bundle branch block).5.)It is used as a screening tool for ischemic heart disease during a cardiac stress test. 6.)It is occasionally helpful with non-cardiac diseases (e.g. pulmonary embolism or hypothermia).7.)The electrocardiogram does not directly assess the contractility of the heart. However, it can give a rough indication of incr
Blood glucose monitoring 2007-08-13 13:05:00 Blood glucose monitoring
is a way of testing how much glucose is in the blood (glycemia).i.)This is important in the care of diabetes mellitus. Most people with Type 2 diabetes need to test at least once per day (usually before breakfast) to assess the effectiveness of their diet and exercise for controlling their blood glucose levels. Many people with Type 2 are using an oral medication to combat their insulin resistance, and must test their blood glucose before and after breakfast to assess the effectiveness of their dosage.ii.)All people who need to inject insulin, both for Type 1 diabetes and Type 2, need also to test their blood sugar more often (3 to 10 times per day) to assess the effectiveness of their prior insulin dose and to calculate their next insulin dose.DIABETES MELLITUS TYPE 1Diabetes mellitus type 1 (Type 1 diabetes, Type I diabetes, T1D, IDDM) is a form of diabetes mellitus. Type 1 diabetes is an autoimmune disease that results in the permanent destruction of insulin Read more:Blood
ROBOTIC SURGERY 2007-08-18 11:13:00 Robotic surgery is the use of robots in performing surgery.(ROBOTIC SURGERY)Three major advances aided by surgical robots are :i.)Remote Surgery(REMOTE ROBOT SURGERY)ii.)Minimally invasive Surgery(Minimal Invasive Robot Surgery)iii.)Unmanned Surgery. (UNMANNED ROBOT SURGERY)ADVANTAGES OF ROBOTIC SURGERY :Major potential advantages of robotic surgery are i.)Precision and Miniaturization. ii.)Articulation beyond normal manipulation and iii.)Three-dimensional magnification. Some surgical robots are autonomous, not under control of a surgeon.(VARIOUS CONCEPTS IN AUTOMATIC CONTROL ROBOTS)HISTORY OF ROBOTIC SURGERYIn 1985 a robot, the PUMA 560, was used to place a needle for a brain biopsy using CT guidance.(PUMA 560 ROBOT)In 1988, the PROBOT, developed at Imperial College London, was used to perform prostatic surgery. (PROBOT ROBOT)The ROBODOC from Integrated Surgical Systems was introduced in 1992 to mill out precise fittings in the femur for hip replacement. (ROBODOC ROBOT HIP SURGERY)Fur
ARTIFICIAL HEART & HEART ASSIST DEVICES 2007-08-15 17:46:00 An artificial heart is a prosthetic device that is implanted into the body to replace the biological heart. It is distinct from a cardiopulmonary bypass machine (CPB) / Heart-Lung machine, which is an external device used to provide the functions of both the heart and the lungs.The CPB oxygenates the blood, so does not need to be connected to both blood circuits. Also, a CPB is only suitable for a few hours use, while artificial hearts have so far been used for periods of long over a year.(ARTIFICIAL HEART)OriginsA synthetic replacement for the heart remains one of the long-sought holy grails of modern medicine. (HEART TRANSPLANT)(HEART TRANSPLANT)The obvious benefit of a functional artificial heart would be to lower the need for heart transplants, because the demand for donor hearts (as it is for all organs) always greatly exceeds supply.(ARTIFICIAL HEAT PARTS)Although the heart is conceptually simple (basically a muscle that functions as a pump), it embodies subtleties that defy stra
GLUCOBAND & GLUCOWATCH 2007-08-15 07:45:00 GLUCOBANDThe Glucoband is a compact electronic scanning device that utilizes a bio-electromagnetic resonance phenomenon to non-invasively measure blood glucose levels in the human body, and to continuously monitor the blood glucose level. The device is based on the technology called Bio-Electric Impedance Spectroscopy (BEIS).A wrist-watch-like Glucoband, with fully integrated LCD screen, electronic circuits, integrated electrodes, battery and adjustable wrist-band, is placed on the person's wrist. The initial measurement process takes only a few minutes, however, in the monitoring mode, measurements can be continuous and only the frequency of measurements must be determined. The Glucoband targets diabetics who are measuring their own blood glucose, and medical personnel who are using blood glucose measuring and monitoring devices in clinics, hospitals and other point-of-care facilities. The measurements meet FDA requirements for accuracy and correlation.The design of the Glucoband is
GLUCOPHONE 2007-08-15 06:43:00 GLUCOMETER + CELL PHONE = GLUCOPHONEGlucophone is a new technology that integrates a blood glucose meter with a standard cellphone. It not only allows you to send results over the air, but specially equipped mobiles will actually be fitted with a GlucoPack that enables you to test Glucose level yourself as you would do with any other traditional glucometer.(LG GLUCOPHONE)Glucophone is essentially a cellphone and glucometer. It will measure blood sugar levels, record and send results to yourself and others.GLUCOPHONEA company called Healthpia America has developed an integrated cell phone-glucometer system that "uses custom software along with an LG UX5000, VX5200, or LX350 and a Glucopack." According to the company's website, they believe that their system is "the world's first, all-in-one, glucometer cell phone and service for managing diabetes remotely. Whether you're a guardian, physician, or healthcare institution, you can provide 24/7 support and emergency intervention to Diabe
INFANT PHOTOTHERAPY 2007-08-21 14:32:00 The phototherapy light shines light onto the baby’s skin. The light must be the correct wavelength (colour) and the correct intensity (brightness). It is used for treating a condition called Jaundice or Hyperbilirubinemia.Jaundice or HyperbilirubinemiaWhen red blood cells die and are broken down, a chemical called “bilirubin” is produced. Normally the bilirubin is processed by the liver and excreted from the body by the kidneys in the urine. The baby’s liver sometimes cannot process the bilirubin quickly enough and it begins to build up in the blood. Bilirubin is deposited in the skin, whites of the eyes, and mucous membranes (for example the inside of the mouth). When this occurs, the baby appears yellow and is said to be “Jaundiced”. Usually Jaundice disappears in 1-2 weeks and does not require special treatment. Some bilirubin in the blood is normal but when the concentration rises too high it is dangerous hyperbilirubinemia. An excessive level of bilirubin can lead to s
INFANT INCUBATORS 2007-08-21 13:59:00 (INFANT INCUBATOR)An infant incubator is used mainly to keep a baby’s core temperature stable at 37 degrees Celsius. Most incubators also humidify the air and can add extra oxygen.(INFANT INCUBATOR WITH BABY)NEED OF INFANT INCUBATORSThe core temperature of the human body needs to be kept at a constant temperature of 37 degrees Celsius. If the temperature goes too high or too low, then the organs can be damaged and illness or death can result. Premature babies (babies born before they are due to be born) have undeveloped nervous systems and also lack the energy to regulate their own temperature, so their temperature needs to be maintained by an incubator. We can only give small babies a small amount of food for growing. We want them to use all of their energy for growth rather than wasting it on keeping warm, so sometimes we use the incubator to help them grow faster.WORKING OF INFANT INCUBATORThe mattress where the baby lies is completely enclosed by a clear plastic canopy. The tempe
HEARING AID 2007-08-24 00:05:00 A hearing aid is a device used to help hard-of-hearing people hear sounds better. In the past, a funnel-like amplification cone, called an "ear trumpet" or "ear horn" was used. Also sometimes used was a desk with a built-in amplifier into which a microphone and earphones could be plugged; these worked better than passive ear trumpets but were not portable.Now, however, the most common style is a small electronic device that fits into the wearer's ear. The first variety of this device had a rectangular battery pack connected by a thin wire, intended to be held in a pocket. Such "body aids," though much more portable than the desk type, still suffered significant disadvantages due to sub-optimal microphone placement. Since the microphone was not near the user's head, it was susceptible to interfering sounds such as clothing-noise. Sound input was also distorted if the microphone was located below the mouth of a person with whom the user was conversing.During the mid- to late 20th centu
INFANT RADIANT WARMERS 2007-08-23 12:54:00 A radiant warmer is used to keep infant's core temperature stable at 37C°. NEED FOR WARMINGThe core temperature of the human body needs to be kept at a constant temperature of 37 degrees Celsius. Premature infants need to use as little energy as possible in keeping warm or cool, using it for growth instead. If the temperature goes too high or too low, then the organs can be damaged and illness or death can result. The radiant warmer is used in a number of different situations: to warm a baby directly after birth, to regulate a baby’s temperature during long term care in hospital, to keep the patient warm during or after surgery, to keep a patient warm when they are minimally covered (because they are having a procedure or need to be accessible)WORKING OF RADIANT WARMERThe patient lies on a bed with the skin exposed. The radiant warmer element is positioned above the patient. The warmer element emits heat radiation, which is absorbed by the patient’s skin and warms the patient. Th
BODY FLUIDS 2007-09-01 01:15:00 The body's water is effectively compartmentalized into several major divisions.INTRACELLULAR FLUID Intracellular Fluid (ICF) comprises 2/3 of the body's water. i.)If your body has 60% water, ICF is about 40% of your weight.ii.)The ICF is primarily a solution of potassium and organic anions, proteins etc. iii.)The cell membranes and cellular metabolism control the constituents of this ICF.iv.)ICF is not homogeneous in your body. It represents a conglomeration of fluids from all the different cells.EXTRACELLULAR FLUIDExtracellular Fluid (ECF) is the remaining 1/3 of your body's water.i.)ECF is about 20% of your weight.ii.)The ECF is primarily a NaCl and NaHCO3 solution.The ECF is further subdivided into three subcompartments:i.)Interstitial Fluid (ISF) surrounds the cells, but does not circulate. It comprises about 3/4 of the ECF.ii.)Plasma circulates as the extracellular component of blood. It makes up about 1/4 of the ECF.iii.)Transcellular fluid is a set of fluids that are outsid
HUMAN CELL 2007-09-01 00:38:00 The cell is one of the most basic units of life. There are millions of different types of cells. There are cells that are organisms onto themselves, such as microscopic amoeba and bacteria cells. And there are cells that only function when part of a larger organism, such as the cells that make up your body. The cell is the smallest unit of life in our bodies. In the body, there are brain cells, skin cells, liver cells, stomach cells, and the list goes on. All of these cells have unique functions and features. And all have some recognizable similarities. i.)All cells have a 'skin', called the plasma membrane, protecting it from the outside environment. The cell membrane regulates the movement of water, nutrients and wastes into and out of the cell. Inside of the cell membrane are the working parts of the cell. (PARTS INSIDE PLASMA MEMBRANE)ii.)At the center of the cell is the cell nucleus. The cell nucleus contains the cell's DNA, the genetic code that coordinates protein
CONTROL SYSTEM 2007-08-31 22:59:00 A control system is a device or set of devices to manage, command, direct or regulate the behaviour of other devices or systems.There are two common classes of control systems, with many variations and combinations: i.) logic or sequential controls, and feedback or linear controls. ii.) fuzzy logic, which attempts to combine some of the design simplicity of logic with the utility of linear control.Some devices or systems are inherently not controllable.The term "control system" may be applied to the essentially manual controls that allow an operator to, for example, close and open a hydraulic press, where the logic requires that it cannot be moved unless safety guards are in place.(EXAMPLE FOR MANUAL CONTROL SYSTEM)An automatic sequential control system may trigger a series of mechanical actuators in the correct sequence to perform a task. For example various electric and pneumatic transducers may fold and glue a cardboard box, fill it with product and then seal it in an automatic pack
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