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AR. LAURIE BAKER 2008-03-07 21:59:00 BIOGRAPHYStudied Architecture at The Birmingham School of Architecture. In 1938, Associate of Royal Institute of British Architects (R.I.B.A.) In 1945, he came to India. In 1983, M.B.E. In 1987, received the first Indian National Habitat Award. In 1989, Indian Institute of Architects Medal for Outstanding Architect of the year. In 1989, given Indian Citizenship.In 1990, Grand Masters Award - Architect of the year. In 1991, Indian Institute of Architects Medal - Outstanding Architect. In 1992, UNO Habitat Award and Roll of Honour. In 1993, International Union of Architects - World Habitat Award. In 1995, University of Central England. Doctor of the University.PROJECTSProjects ranging from fishermen's villages to institutional complexes, low cost mud housing schemes to low cost cathedrals.Ce
Architectural Presentation - POLYSTYRENE USED FOR HEAT INSULATION. 2008-03-07 21:37:00 WHAT IS HEAT INSULATION?Heat insulation is the method of preventing heat from escaping a container or from entering the container. In other words, thermal insulation can keep an enclosed area such as a building warm, or it can keep the inside of a container cold. Heat is transferred from one material to another by conduction, convection and/or radiation. Insulators are used to minimize transfer of heat energy. Molded Expanded Polystyrene (MEPS) Foam BoardMEPS is a closed-cell material that can be molded into many items, such as coffee cups and shipping materials, or into large sheets as construction insulation. This material is commonly known as "bead board," and it has R-value of about 4 per inch of thickness [2.54 cm].R-valueThe R-value of a material is its resistance to heat flow and is
Architectural presentation-METALS 2008-03-05 10:51:00 IRONORES:HAEMATITE (Fe2O3)----65%-70%LIMONITE (2Fe2O3, 3H2O)----60%MAGNETITE (Fe3O4)----70%-73%PYRITE (FeS2)----45%-47%SIDERITE (FeCO3)----40% PIG IRONMANUFACTURE:DRESSING· CALCINATION AND ROASTING IN BLAST FURNACE· SMELTING· (PIG IRON OBTAINED CONTAINS @ 93 TO 95% OF IRON, @ 4 TO5 % OF CARBON AND REMAINING BEING SULPHUR, SILICON, MANGANESE, PHOSPHORUS, ETC. THE SLAG OBTAINED CONTAINS @ 45% OF LIME, @35% OF SILICA, @ 12% OF ALUMINA AND THE REMAINING BEING OTHER IMPURITIES SUCH AS MAGNESIA, CALCIUM SULPHATE, MANGANEESE OXIDE, ETC. SLAG MAY BE USED AS · IN CEMENT CONCRETE AS COARSE AGGREGATE,· IN MAKING ROADS AS ROAD METAL,· IN RAILWAYS AS BALLAST,· IN THE MANUFACTURE OF BLAST Read more:presentation
Architectural Presentation - TROPICAL GARDENS. 2008-03-04 22:56:00 THE WORLD DIVIDED INTO 3 ZONES,POLARTEMPERATETROPICALTROPICS IS THE AREA OF THE EARTH LYING BETWEEN THE NORTH AND SOUTH POINTS OF SOLSTICE (I.E.) APP. 25 DEGREE NORTH AND SOUTH LATITUDE.ANY PLANT NATURALLY OCCURING BETWEEN THE TROPIC OF CANCER AND THE TROPIC OF CAPRICORN IS A TROPICAL GARDEN PLANT.TROPICAL REGIONS ARE CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO THEIR CLIMATIC CHARACTERISTICS:1.SUB-TROPICAL ZONES 2.HOT ARID ZONES 3.SAVANNA ZONES4.MONSOON ZONES5.HOT HUMID ZONESVEGETATION CHARACTER----1.SUB TROPICAL ZONE-SPARSE TO LIGHT PLANT GROWTH.2.HOT ARID ZONE-LOW,SHALLOW-ROOTED GRASS,SMALL,THORNY BUSHES AND TREES,CACTII.DESERT ALMOST WITHOUT VEGETATION AS THE UNDERGROUND WATER TABLE VERY LOW.SCANTY PLANT GROWTH BRIEFLY AFTER RAINFALL,GROUND DRIES OUT AGAIN IMMEDIATELY.3.SAVANNA ZONE-VARIES AS THIS ZONE E
Architectural presentation-IRRIGATION TECHNIQUES 2008-03-04 04:19:00 The use of system of basins, channels, or sprinklers system to provide a controlled supply of water to plants.Landscape planting can be irrigated in number of ways: basin, furrow, sprinkler, soaker, and drip.The method used will depend on type of plantings, amount, quality, source of water, terrain; available funding ; and source of labor. In order to save water & labor, most intensive landscape plantings are being developed with automatically controlled systems.Irrigation systems have become an increasingly large part of landscape construction budgets. OBJECTIVE:To supply water in usable amounts to the root zone of the plants. To accomplish this it is necessary to consider the soil conditions and the growth characteristics of the land.INTRODUCTION:SOIL CHARACTERISTICS:Infiltration rate Read more:presentation
DIAPHRAGM WALLS 2008-03-03 11:36:00 Diaphragm walls refers to the construction of in-situ retaining vertical walls by deep trench excavation method.Stability of the sides of the excavation is ensured by bentonite slurry. Hence these types of walls are also termed at times as ‘slurry walls’The wall is constructed in panels and the length of typical panel is between 2.5 to 7m.Standard methods of constructing retaining walls require temporary form work and supports. These become uneconomical after a certain depth. The construction of the work above ground cannot proceed till the basement work is complete. This involves more time for construction.Use of diaphragm wall construction eliminates the need for formwork and temporary support and also allows above ground construction to proceed along with basement constructionPurpos
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS AND THEIR FIRE RESISTANCE 2008-03-03 05:07:00 INTRODUCTIONThe fire resistance of a structural member may be defined as its ability to withstand exposure to fire without loss of load bearing function or ability to act as a barrier to spread of fire. This provides time to permit people to evacuate a building before it collapses and is essential in confining fire to the compartment in which it starts.Prediction of the fire behavior of structural members involves the calculation of fire temperatures and the temperature, deformation and strength of the members .FIRE RESISTANT CONSTRUCTION.In a fire resistant construction, the maximum use of non-combustible material should be encouraged.the structural members like beams ,columns,floors,roofs etc. should be constructed in such a way that they should continue to function as structural memb
CIRCULATION PATTERN OF CHANDIGARH,Inida. 2008-03-02 00:11:00 Formation of the cityPost partition in 1947, the Indian state of Punjab needed a new capital to replace Lahore.The new capital of India was envisioned as the modern capital of India by Jawaharlal Nehru.The site chosen was a farmland of 24 villages.Criteria for selection of siteLocation, centralWater supply available in the form of seasonal rivers.Comfortable climate, i.e. a subtropical monsoon.Proximity to building materials, required for large scale construction.HISTORYMayer Nowiki prepared a Master Plan for a population of 500 thousand based on a system of a low density neighborhood and defined by a grid of roads.Roads were slightly curved to follow the contours of the site.Le Corbusier simplified Mayer’s Curvilinear system by adopting the grid iron pattern of straight roads.Professio
Architectural Presentation - ASBESTOS CEMENT SHEETS FOR HEAT INSULATION 2008-03-01 02:50:00 Heat Insulation:Heat insulation of any material is the resistance provided to the transfer of heat from the higher temp. to the lower temp.Heat Resistance (R) is defined as: Number of hrs for 1 watt of energy to transfer heat from 1sqm of area with a temp difference of 1*C.The heat resistance of any material is denoted by R. But for combination of materials it is U-value, which is the reciprocal of the R value.Need of Heat insulationThe excessive use of artificial mechanisms for achieving the comfort level, has led to high emissions of chlorofluorocarbons & other poisonous gases.Government of India has passed an Environment act, which will be applied in 2007.According to this act the external envelop of any structure must have a U-value of min 0.5 W/m2K.What is Asbestos cement?Asbestos i
Architectural Presentation-RAFT FOUNDATION 2008-02-29 05:34:00 FOUNDATIONMAIN FUNCTION IS TO CARRY THE LOAD OF THE SUPERSTRUCRURE TO THE SUBSOIL .SELECTION OF FOUNDATIONTHE TYPE OF THE FOUNDATION IS MAINLY DEPEND UPON THE FOLLOWING THINGS :- TYPE OF CONSTRUCTION.LOAD BEARING CAPACITY OF OF SOIL.WHEN STRUCTURE HAS ONLY LIGHT LOADING SUCH AS DOMESTIC DWELLING HOUSE,THE RAFT OR MASS CONCRETE STRIP FOUNDATION IS SUFFICIENT.THE PLAN SIZE OF A FOUNDATION IS DERIVED FROM LOAD/ BEARING CAPACITY OF SOILTYPES OF THE FOUNDATIONS STRIP FOUNDATIONS. ISOLATED OR PAD FOUNDATIONS. RAFT FOUNDATIONS. COMBINATION OF ABOVE FOUNDATIONS. PILED FOUNDATION. STRIP FOUNDATIONSREINFORCED CONCRETE STRIP FOUNDATIONS ARE USED TO SUPPORT AND TRANSMIT THE LOADS OF HEAVY WALLS.ISOLATED OR PAD
Material Presentation- QUIET BOARD FOR SOUND INSULATION 2008-02-28 23:33:00 DESCRIPTION:IT is comprised of porous expanded polypropylene beads, which are formed into a semi rigid,water resistant panel.The cylinder shaped beads are nonporous,but the hollow cores and cracks between adjacent beads allow sound to travel into the panel where it is absorbed.APPLICATIONS:IT can be installed as a wall panel, ceiling tile and hanging baffle. Due to its water resistant properties, it may be used in marine applications.Practical applications are:indoor swimming pools, locker rooms, auditoriums, gymnasiums, classrooms,arenas/stadiums, laboratories, computer rooms, clean rooms, food preparation areas, manufacturing facilities, machine shops, gun ranges and machine enclosures (i.e. compressors, pumps and air conditioner units).PRODUCT AVAILABILITY: 1 x 24 x 48 inch white panels
Trip to Wai and Dhom... 2008-02-28 00:55:00 Hi friends..yesterday i had been to Wai and Dhom , very old villages, having historical backgroung and rich heritage culture..Dhom is my native place,its a very small village.I visited own old Wada at Wai and rice field ,poltry farm at Dhom.so.. here r some of the reviews from the architectural angle.. Wai is one of the important town in Satara district. It is 88 Kms. from Pune on the way to Panchgani. Wai is situated at the banks of Krishna river. It is famous for temples.This place with heavy rainfall - 701 meter high from the sea level.There are 7 ghats here: Gangapuri Madhi Aali Ganpati Aali Dharmapuri Brahmanshahi Ramdoh Bhimkund On the Brahmanshahi ghat there are 4 temples Chakreshwar, Chimneshwar,Kaunteshwar/Harihareshwar and Kaleshwar. Near Brhmanshahi there are Vitthal and Ganpati
THERMAL INSULATION USING FIBRE BOARDS 2008-02-25 10:16:00 IntroductionThe primary purpose of building’s thermal insulation is to control heat transfer and thereby protect a building from excessive heat loss during cold seasons and heat gain during hot seasons. This comfort effectively reduce the amount of energy required by a building’s heating and cooling equipment to maintain condition for human comfort.Requirements for insulationInsulations main function is to keep the heat in. To be effective, insulation must be the following:resistant to heat flowable to feel the space evenly and completelyDurable, andFor some location able withstand exposure to heat for moisturesSeveral different insulation materials may be used at different locations in the house envelope, depending on the space available for the insulation, ease of access and other
Architectural Presentation-CEMENT CONCRETE FOR HEAT OR THERMAL INSULATION 2008-02-25 10:04:00 THERMAL INSULATIONTHERMAL INSULATION CAN BE DEFINED AS RESISTANCE TO THERMALTRANSMITANCE OVER A GRADIENT OF TEMPERATUREIT CAN ALS0 BE TERMED AS THERMAL INERTIA OR THERMAL RESISTANCE.IT CAN BE EXPRESSED IN BTU PER HR SQ FT DEGREE F.MODES OF TRANSFER OF HEATCONDUCTION, the most common means of heat transfer in solids, CONVECTION the most common means of heat transfer in liquids and gases, is the transfer of heat via a combination of conduction and fluid flow..RADIATIONRadiation is the only form of heat transfer that can occur in the absence of any form of medium – through a vacuum., a net transfer of heat occurs from the hotter materials to the cooler materials. THUS , THERMAL INSULATION =1/HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT (VALUE RANGES FROM 0.85-2.98)Spe
Reasons to see red over green energy, Government apathy sabotages Britain's shift to a low-carbon economy 2008-02-24 07:35:00 Engineers fitting solar panels to a roof at Silvertown solar village, Docklands, London.You'd hope, wouldn't you, that the government department responsible for energy to heat our homes, power our cars and so on would be on top of two key issues - a switch to a low-carbon economy
and the possibility that oil might run out sooner than we thought.Both these issues should concern us greatly and, indeed, there is growing discussion of them everywhere. But, the Department of Business As Usual (DBERR) doesn't seem to be on the case at all.It spends most of its time pointlessly changing its name (from the Department for Trade and Industry, you will recall) or changing ministers so often that few have time to get their feet under the desk before they are gone.Ed Matthew of Friends of the Earth put Read more:Reasons
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Chinese cities adopt low carbon initiative 2008-02-24 07:33:00 Chinese cities Shanghai and Baoding have joined a new WWF initiative
promoting low carbon development in China’s urban areas. The Low Carbon City Initiative will focus on increasing the energy efficiency of buildings, renewable energy and manufacturing more efficient products. WWF aims to break the link between rapid economic growth and increasing carbon emissions. “Cities are an important segment of China’s economic development but many face the challenges of low energy efficiency and degraded environmental quality,” said Dr. Li Lin, Head of Conservation Strategies at WWF-China. “The Low Carbon City Initiative is about finding a sustainable development mode for China’s urban areas - through studying current energy production and utilisation patterns and developing new economic Read more:Chinese
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Architecture students think outside the box to design low-cost, less-waste housing 2008-02-24 07:28:00 February 20, 2008 A non-profit organization has given architecture students a chance to learn about the practical, hands-on elements of their future profession whilst exposing them to the benefits of building low-cost, sustainable housing using materials sourced from the local area. In 2004, eight students design
ed and built a home for a single mother and her Navajo family which incorporated a rammed-earth Trombe wall for temperature regulation. Other innovative and alternative building ideas included building the ceiling and roof from recycled pallets, constructing the exterior walls with straw and clear acrylic and cladding the interior with discarded road signs.Due to a student housing crisis, this year’s focus for the DesignBuildBLUFF team is to design and build a workshop, student h Read more:Architecture
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Principles of Design in vernacular architecture 2008-02-23 10:08:00 The vernacular architecture of our past was based on certain principles of design.VERNACULAR ARCHITECTUREVernacular architecture is wise thoughtof generations moulded by culture andregion in which it flourishes. It is regionspecific and culture specific. Vernaculardesign is seen as a limitation imposedby the guiding lines of region andculture….or is learning to live withthese limitations by utilization of itspotentials to the maximum. Therefore,vernacular design is a result of factorsthat frame it.PRINCIPLES OF DESIGNIn design evolution, Architecture cannotfulfill its function and generateits message unless it has some underlyingprinciples of design…AXIS, SYMMETRY,HIERARCHY, RHYTHM, DATUM,TRANSFORMATION; it also includesFORM, SPACE.This paper aims to find underlyingprinciples of design Read more:Principles
Sign and symbol-Tabanliogue Architects complete the Nova factory in Turkey 2008-02-21 09:04:00 The Nova Factory and Office building is the headquarters of Turkey
’s largest manufacturer of large-format illuminated and non-illuminated signage. The ‘L-shaped’ plan utilises a simple orthogonal structure with a three-storey office building incorporating showrooms and staff and visitor restaurants, fronting the flat-roofed production space. A subtle curve is introduced in the main façade, a ‘trace’ of a wheel, alluding to the fact that the founder of Nova was formerly one of Turkey’s most accomplished motor-rally drivers. Raw materials enter the factory from the western end and exit as finished products from the eastern loading dock. The production space houses a number of assembly lines where a diverse range of materials – plastics, aluminium, GRP and steel – are assembl Read more:Architects
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2008 International Student Design Ecohouse Competition 2008-02-21 09:01:00 Architectural and design students from around the world are invited to enter the Ecohouse Student
Design Competition 2008. The competition invites designs for an ecohouse of 120m2 for up to six persons on a plot of 200m2. It will be launched at the forthcoming Ecobuild by The Concrete Centre, in conjunction with the Architectural Press and Teachers in Architecture.The designs should take full account of how to reduce energy needs for heating, cooling and lighting, the use of passive sustainability techniques, and the use of local construction materials and renewable energy sources. In addition, the homes must be designed to be robust and resilient and last until at least the end of this century and through an age of increasingly extreme weather events. Whilst taking account of all of thes Read more:International
Architecture !!!! 2008-02-20 14:43:00 The comic is about the life of an architect by the name of Archibald and the things that cross his path. Archibald runs an architecture office together with his colleague and friend, the engineer Gerald. They are partners for life. Despite their completely different personalities, they complement each other perfectly. While Archibald is a dreamer, the man with the big ideas, Gerald is the realist who keeps his feet firmly on the ground. Archibald is an egocentric idealist with his very own views on architecture. His often vehement clashes with the various participants in the building process are the living proof of that. However, he gradually realizes that it is sometimes necessary to compromise when you want to see your projects substantiated. He understands that architecture is more a qu Read more:Architecture
Socially acceptable design 2008-02-19 02:52:00 FXFOWLE ARCHITECTS has unveiled its design
for a new socially, economically, and environmentally sustainable housing project planned for a growing region in Greater Noida, India. Located 48 km (30 miles) from Delhi in Northern India and near a major regional rail system, Greater Noida will provide 1,700 units of housing (studios to five bedrooms) and 3,700 units of parking for a growing Indian middle-class. Situated on a 19-hectare (47-acre) site, the Greater Noida Housing Project is developed by Ansal Properties & Infrastructure, a commercial and residential real estate company with offices throughout India. Situated on a 19-hectare (47-acre) site, the Greater Noida Housing Project is developed by Ansal Properties & Infrastructure, a commercial and residential real estate company with off Read more:Socially
Symbol of prosperity and pride for India- Construction starts on FXFOWLE's 60 storey tower in Mumbai 2008-02-19 02:47:00 Construction has started on India
Tower, a new 60-storey (301 meters) world-class hotel, retail, and residential tower designed by FXFOWLE ARCHITECTS, an internationallyrecognized architecture firm with offices in New York City and Dubai. Located in South Mumbai
, India, and developed by D B Hospitality Private Limited, India Tower combines architectural design excellence, environmental responsibility, and high-end shopping, dining, and entertainment options to create a dynamic new destination for local residents and international business and leisure travelers. The developer is committed to making India Tower a United States Green Building Council (USGBC) LEED Gold-rated project, setting a high standard for future architecture and design projects in the country. Construction is expected to Read more:Symbol
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A glimpse into the design and interior of The Times building 2008-02-19 02:41:00 At the end of last year, The New York Times
Company officially opened its new headquarters building in the heart of Times Square. The 52-story glass and steel structure, design
ed by Renzo Piano and FXFOWLE and interiors designed by Gensler, reinforces the values of the Times Company and its culture of transparency. With floor to ceiling water-white glass windows, exposed steel columns and accents of red and marigold, the building is a fitting home for a 21st-century media company. Read more:glimpse
REINFORCED CAVITY WALL 2008-03-12 02:38:00 INTRODUCTION :A WALL CONSTRUCTED IN TWO LEAVES OR SKINS WITH A SPACE OR CAVITY BETWEEN THEM IS CALLED A CAVITY WALL.USED AS AN EXTERNAL WALL.THE MAIN PURPOSE OF CONSTRUCTING A CAVITY WALL IS TO PREVENT THE PENETRATION OF RAIN TO THE INTERNAL SURFACE OF THE WALL.IT MAY OR MAY NOT BE REINFORCED.ACCORDING TO BUILDING REGULATION RULES :THE CAVITY SHALL NOT BE LESS THAN 50 MM NOR MORE THAN 75 MM IN WIDTH AT ANY LEVEL.EACH LEAF SHALL NOT BE LESS THAN 100 MM IN THICKNESS AT ANY LEVEL.FOR A NOMINAL 255 MM WIDE CAVITY WALL OF ANY LENGTH THE MAX. HT. IS 3.6 M & FOR LENGTH NOT EXCEEDING 9 M , THE MAX. HT. IS 9 M.INNER LEAF CAN NOT BE LESS THAN 75 MM THK. IF THE WALL FORMS PART OF APRIVATE DWELLING HOUSE OF ONE STOREY OR IS THE UPPER STOREY OF SUCH A DWELLING HAVING ONLY TWO STOREYS.A GAUGE MORTER NOT
SAND-FACED PLASTER 2008-03-12 02:32:00 PLASTERINGPlastering provides a finished surface that is firm and smooth.The plaster acts as a sound and thermal insulation layer to some extent.Plaster is a layer of cement-sand mortar applied over a masonry work which also acts as a damp-proof coat over the masonry.Plastering enhances the appearing of the building.Helps to provide a suitable base for colour wash.SAND-FACED PLASTERThe first coat of cement plaster is carried out in cement mortar of proportion 1:4,I.e. one part of cement to four parts of clean,coarse and angular river sand by volume.The thickness of first coat is 12mm.The first coat is to be well watered for atleast 7 days.The first coat is provided with zigzag lines so that the first coat adheres well with the second coat.The second coat of sand-faced cement plaster is car
SPECIALIZED RENDERING 2008-03-12 02:10:00 Introduction:-The words wall, walling, cladding, facings and wall facings are variously used relative to the usually vertical envelop of the buildings.Cladding clothes the building in a protective clothing that is hung supported by or secured to the skeleton or structural frame as a jacket.Cladding will be used to describe panels of concrete, GRC, GRP, glass & metal fixed to and generally hung from the frame, by supporting beams or inside light framing as a continuous outer skin to the frame.More recently thin sheet metal panels, are used by themselves as a wall finish or with the frame and services exposed in what is referred as a hi-tech architecture.In specialized external finishes the following techniques are generally used- Aluminium cladding Stone cladding Heritage plasterAluminu
CLIMATOLOGY 2008-03-11 07:32:00 STUDY OF CLIMATOLOGY IS A STUDY OF ENERGY CONSERVATION AND DESIGN TO CREATE COMFORTABLE SHELTERS WITH RESPECT TO CLIMATE.CLIMATE :IT CAN BE DEFINED AS AN INTEGRATION IN TIME OF PHYSICAL STATES OF THE ATMOSPHERE,ENVIRONMENT, CHARACTERISTIC OF A CERTAIN GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION.WEATHER:WEATHER IS THE MOMENTARY STATE OF ATMOSPHERIC ENVIRONMENT A CERTAIN LOCATION.CLIMATE COULD BE DEFINED AS THE INTEGRATION IN TIME OF WEATHER CONDITIONS.ATMOSPHERETHE MIXTURE OF GASES ENVELOPING THE SURFACE OF THE EARTH HELD BY GRAVITATIONAL FORCE AND FRICTION IS THE ATMOSPHERE.TOPOSPHERE 8-13 KMSTATOSPHERE 200 KMINOSPHERE 300 KMEXOSTSPHERE 1300 KMOZONE LAYERGLOBAL FACTORSSOLAR RADIATIONEARTHS-SUN RELATIONSHIPEARTHS THERMAL BALANCEWINDSOCEAN AND OCEAN CURRENTSTOPOGRAPHYSOLAR RADIATI
RENAISSANCE 2008-03-15 00:55:00 INTRODUCTIONA NEW STYLE OF FORTIFICATION WITH EARTH WORKS BASTIONS AND ARTILLARY RESISTANT WALL DEVELOPED.VAST OPEN SPACES WERE LEFT AT THE CENTRE OF TOWNS FOR COMMUNITY ACTIVITIES.GREAT EMPHASIS ON ELEVATION TREATMENT OF BUILDING ROADS CAN BE SEEN.TRADES BROUGHT THE CONCENTRATION OF THE PEOPLE TO TOWNS SITUATED OF THE MAIN CROSS ROADS.OWNERS OF THE LANDS SHIFTED TO THE MERCHANTS AND THE POWER OF THE FEUDAL LORDS DIMINISHED.PRINTING PRESS WAS INVENTED AND WAYS WERE DEVISED TO IMPROVE THE SIMPLE HAND MACHINES.GUN POWDER WAS INVEVENTED IN THE 15TH C; AND NEW TECHNIQUES OF WARFARE WERE INTRODUCED, WHICH CHANGE THE WAR STRATEGIES AND OLD FORTIFICATIONS WERE FOUND INADEQUATE.THE CONTRAST BETWEEN THE RICH MERCHANTS AND THE POOR INCREASED AND HENCE, THE INSECURITY OF LIFE OF THE POOR ALSO INCREAS
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