Owner: EUCALYPTOLOGICS GIT Forestry Consulting Eucalyptus Blog URL:http://git-forestry-blog.blogspot.com/ Join Date: Thu, 04 Oct 2007 12:54:21 -0500 Rating:0 Site Description: Welcome to GIT Forestry Consulting\'s Blog, where theoretical and practical knowledge on Eucalyptus cultivation, be it at nursery stage, ornamental gardens or timber plantations, can be found. Plus good images. Find us too at git-forestry dot com Site statistics:Click here
Container Grown Ornamental Eucalyptus: add an Australian touch to your garden (II) 2007-09-30 04:07:00 We bring you today yet other four presentation examples of several types of cold hardy ornamental Eucalyptus
. Some of these gum trees are specimen plants in big containers suitable for display at garden centres or urban landscaping and requiring special care in this case. Others of these container grown plants are suitable for direct planting into convenient garden designs but requiring appropriate maintenance operations post-planting. (click image to enlarge)Cold tolerance: -15ºC to -20ºCMore information? (click image to enlarge)Cold tolerance: -8ºC to -12ºCMore information? (click image to enlarge)Cold tolerance: -15ºC to -20ºCMore information? (click image to enlarge)Cold tolerance: -8ºC to -12ºCMore information? All these eucalypt types can thrive in USDA Zone 8 and some can tolerate USDA Zone 7 winters in gardens with appropriate microclimates. Most Eucalyptus benefit from full sun exposure and suitable protection from wind damage during their first years.Wa Read more:Container
, Grown
, Ornamental
, Australian
, touch
Cold hardy Eucalyptus dalrympleana in Galicia (NW Spain) 2007-09-27 10:58:00 Eucalyptus dalrympleana in Galicia
(NW Spain
) ... and elsewhere Gustavo Iglesias Trabado GIT Forestry Consulting - Consultoría y Servicios de Ingeniería Agroforestal - www.git-forestry.comDalrymple who?Back in 1767 a British gentleman named Alexander Dalrymple theorised on the existence of a Terra Australis Incognita to the south of New Guinea, and suggested a route to the Unknown based on the old maps done by Luis Váez de Torres, the Spaniard that a century earlier could have discovered Terra Australis... twice. Three years after the theory Sir Joseph Banks was onboard Captain Cook's Endeavour towards Botany Bay, which would start the practical discovery of Australian flora and soon of a new country for the British Empire. Eucalyptus country.Fig 1: Mountain Gum grove in the Highlands of Galicia (NW Spain)A species distributed accross a large spatial range in Australia, E. dalrympleana was not described until 1920, when Joseph Maiden (later honoured with E. globulus ssp. maid Read more:Eucalyptus
Eucalyptus: coastal rainforests in Galicia (Spain) 2007-09-07 06:20:00 We have seen earlier in this blog some examples of old growth in the eucalypt belt of Northwestern Spain
, specimens representative of a middle stage (1900-1940) in the spread of these Australian trees from botanical rarities growing in plant collections or private gardens (1860-1900) to a major timber crop. The remaining trees of those old days are currently giants, and in some cases, natural monuments.Fig 1: Giant isolated specimen of Eucalyptus
globulus growing at sea level near one of the nowadays largest eucalypt forest in Europe.Impressive growth rates achievable in an all year-round warm climate with abundant rainfall and frequent fog soon caught attention of peasants, foresters and timberjacks. As soon as 1913 some authors quote:"It is the first species [E. globulus] which has become more common, be it as isolated specimens, be it forming small groves, or sometimes small forests as the so very beautiful one owned by the intelligent agriculturalist and enthusiastic friend of the Read more:Galicia
Ornamental Eucalyptus? You must be kidding! 2007-08-31 07:07:00 Warning: ironies belowAs you well know, Eucalyptus
are those little diverse Australian trees, that all become giants, invasive unestoppable weeds, they deplete soil and lower watertables, so aggresive nothing grows under them, so poisonous nothing can grow where they once grew, as much troublegiving as unable to be planted in gardens because their roots spread for a hundred meters and can cause havoc to anything growing in their way. They have nil or low ornamental potential and in addition they are not cold hardy!Fig 1: Example of compact growth in sculpted cold hardy Eucalyptus grown in big containers Fig 2: Example of garden performance for Minilyptus, sculpted for mallee growth habit. Planted in company of red flowering Callistemon and with an understorey of different Hebe cultivars.Fig 3: Example of distinct connate juvenile foliage and flower buds of the Spinning Gum Tree.Fig 4: Example of heavily pruned (pollarded) Eucalyptus gunnii cultivated from a potted specimen and plante Read more:Ornamental
Pruning ornamental eucalypts: Eucalyptus gunnii example 2007-08-09 12:05:00 Early growth in ornamental eucalypts: Sculpting Eucalyptus
gunnii (Follow the links under each figure for full description of each stage)Fig. 1: Standard potted ornamental eucalypt ready to be planted outFig. 2: Early growth during the first year post-plantingFig. 3: First winter growth and spring Eucalyptus pollardingFig. 4: Second year early growth after size control operations (pruning & clipping)Fig. 5: Pollarded & pruned ornamental Eucalyptus 65 weeks after plantingBenefits of combining pollarding, pruning and clipping on ornamental garden Eucalyptus- Size control achieved, important for gardens with limited space (tree size estabilised around 3 m)- Basal branches retained (not discarded by the tree after building up higher crown)- More compact form (noticeable length growth in basal branches)- Balanced aerial part/root system ratio (we minimise windhtrow damage risks)- Fresh Eucalyptus foliage from pruning operations, useful for flower arrangementsKeep an eye on...- New branch ar
Eucalyptus flowers: E. macarthurii in bloom 2007-08-08 07:18:00 Phenology of E. macarthurii in Galicia (Northwestern Spain)Blooming starts: AugustBlooming ends: OctoberNº simultaneous flower/fruit crops: up to 3Seed maturity after flower bud formation: 18 to 30 monthsSeed maturity after blooming: 12 to 18 monthsThe Eucalyptus
of Sir William Macarthur can reach up to 40 meters height when grown at forestry plantings on good sites, or remain a shorter tree of wider crown and retaining basal branches when grown as isolated specimen (20-30 m).Its quite good cold hardiness, resisting down to -10ºC and more than 80 frost events per year, and its average growth rates, made of it one of the alternative species in Northwestern Spain to E. globulus for inland areas or beyond 500 meters above sea level before the widespread planting of E. nitens.Prolific in flowering, individual blooms are very small sized and difficult to notice. In clusters of seven, they become small white masses, same way as E. pauciflora. But these inflorescences are yet the size of a
Corymbia maculata: an example of ornamental bark in eucalypts 2007-08-02 21:00:00 An interesting eucalypt species from both a timber production perspective but also an ornamental point of view, Corymbia maculata (known as Eucalyptus maculata from 1844 to 1995) sets its flower buds and later its seed capsules in panicles also known as corymbs. Individual flowers and capsules are normally grouped in 3's or 4's, but many times a pair of groups grow from the same point of the branchlet, giving appeareance of groups of 7's. Globose and urn shaped capsules of medium size normally develop in dense clusters where previously medium sized white flowers attract nectar browsing fauna that involuntarily cooperate with this eucalypt for pollination.Urceolate and globose infrutescences of Corymbia maculata (ex Eucalyptus maculata)The spotted gum receives its name for a relatively unusual bark type within eucalypts. "Maculata" literally means "spotted", and that is the appeareance of mature bark, showing patches of grey, brown, white and yellow that give it a ressemblance to a t
Eucalyptus and soil depletion: quite a bit of a myth 2007-07-24 21:45:00 One of the factors that have been used and abused for the demonisation of Eucalyptus
trees is "their ability to deplete soils, so nothing can grow where eucalypts once grew". A myth very in the same line of the "nothing grows under gum trees" one. Pretty surely those propagating these ideas and those giving credit to the previous have never been to the natural habitat of these trees in Australia, whose rich agricultural and livestock production happens each day mainly on previously cleared land once covered with eucalypt forests. And quite possibly myth believers have never been into an eucalypt plantation either.What is sure is that Eucalyptus can perfectly be grown under sustainable forestry principles, and that knowing your soils and your plants before taking opinion is very important. Soil management under sustainability philosophies relies basically on the simple principle of "what you get out of it should come back". Return nutrients that you extract, or at least try to minimise
Ornamental Eucalyptus in standard containers: add an Australian touch to your garden 2007-07-23 15:39:00 Here you have other three examples of cold hardy ornamental Eucalyptus
. These gum trees are not, as we saw in a previous entry, destined to become specimen plants in big containers. These are for direct planting into convenient garden designs in USDA Zone 8. Some of these species would tolerate appropriate microclimates of USDA Zone 7 gardens too. (click image to enlarge)Cold tolerance: -15ºC to -20ºCMore information?(click image to enlarge)Cold tolerance: -3ºC to -8ºCMore information?(click image to enlarge)Cold tolerance: -8ºC to -12ºCMore information?Some types of Eucalypts can reach noticeable sizes in few years if planted out and not subject to size control by the adecuate interventions of pruning and/or pollarding, so our recommended post-planting management is highly dependant on your garden size, available free space and desired plant shape to match the desired combination with other plants or elements of your garden design.Please remember these operations do require so Read more:Ornamental
, Australian
, touch
Ornamental Eucalyptus in Big Containers: Tamed Giants 2007-07-19 19:02:00 We have seen that certain Eucalyptus
species can easily reach giant sizes in relatively short periods of time. With such a biodiversity within this plant genus (hundreds of species, subspecies, varieties and cultivars) giantism is luckily not always present for all types of gum trees. But a good deal of eucalypt knowledge worldwide has to do with their applications for timber production, and in such cases fast growth, good form and suitability to resist frost events by winter are some of the initial important considerations. However, for the urban gardener, especially if with limited space, alternative options need of some consideration.Here you have four examples of tamed cold hardy ornamental Eucalyptus achieving their final destination as plants in big containers, whose frost tolerance makes them suitable for cultivation outdoors in USDA Zone 8 gardens and favourable microclimates of USDA Zone 7 gardens. Some of these can reach giant sizes if planted out and not subject to size con Read more:Ornamental
, Giants
Eucalyptus: The Giants of Spain & Portugal 2007-07-11 11:19:00 By 1866 in the neighbourhood of Coimbra (Portugal
) the first cultivated forests of Eucalyptus
in Iberia were established with the planting of thirty five thousand trees besides the Mondego river and at Mata de Choupal. It was an attempt to tame the stream and control devastating soil erosion caused by floods. Until then, the Australian trees were botanical rarities and relatively uncommon even as ornamental plants in public and private gardens. It was also a long time before they became a paramount timber crop for Northwestern Iberia, but this protective afforestation can be considered the beginning of such an era.In the neighbourhood of Coimbra stands today an eucalypt tree that witnessed those times and that has grown straight and tall from the bottom of a foggy deep gorge in search of light to become the tallest Eucalyptus in Europe. It is the Karri Knight, an Eucalyptus diversicolor from Western Australia.Fig 1: The giant Grandfather of Chavín (Spain
) and Karri Knight of Vale de C Read more:Giants
Natural Regeneration in Eucalyptus (5): surviving forestry fires. 2007-06-28 07:07:00 We have previously seen images of natural regeneration in E. delegatensis, E. obliqua, E. globulus, E. nitens, E. blakelyi, E. nicholii and E. gunnii in which regrowth was present from lignotuber or axillary buds after the removal af the aerial part of the trees. Today we will see one of the natural equivalents to coppice growth after timber harvest, which is vegetative regeneration after fire.Snow Gums regrowing after fire in the Victorian Alps (Australia)(Photo courtesy of Phil in Sydney's Blog "Eucalypts In Habitat")This response in different eucalypt species is the result of adaptation to changes in their natural Australian habitat during millenia, and particularly to different degrees of natural selection pressure caused by relatively frequent forestry fire events. After the loss of their aerial part by fire, only the most vigorous coppicer specimens become dominant trees and, if free from further fire damage in the short term, are able to produce flowers, cross pollinate and pro Read more:Eucalyptus
, Natural
, fires
Planting Eucalyptus: roots are not the problem 2007-06-27 07:37:00 One of the controversial issues with Eucalyptus
trees has to do with their root systems. Frequently exaggerated as a factor against their planting in gardens or urbanised areas as ornamental trees, menaces of doom to basements, pavements, drainages and other structures are widespread and even fantasy tales about their thirsty roots
coming out of your kitchen tap are not that uncommon.Difficult to debunk this myth with some real facts without digging up a bit. And that is exactly what Dr. Hailu Zerfu in collaboration with the Institute of Forest Ecology of the University of Vienna did in the highlands of Ethiopia, which, as you may have guessed, it is also Eucalyptus country.Example of methodology to survey root spatial distribution and biomass and nutrient allocation in Eucalyptus fuelwood plantations established on deep heavy clay soils in Amhara (Ethiopia). Spatial distribution of Eucalyptus root systems: summary of resultsNo doubt, some eucalypt species that reach big tree sizes wh
Eucalyptus timber: not just pulpwood 2007-06-20 06:19:00 Northern Spain, with a climate similar to Tasmania, shares also part of its landscapeSourcing with Northern Portugal the majority of all Eucalyptustimber
produced in IberiaAnd the uses of Eucalyptus wood produced here are as diverse as the trees arePhotography of applied uses for Eucalyptus lumber courtesy of CIS-Madera(Centro de Innovación y Servicios Tecnológicos de la Madera de Galicia)Useful LinksEuroglobulus: Manual de la Madera de Eucalipto Blanco / Eucalyptus globulus Timber ManualNuevas aplicaciones de la madera de eucalipto / New industrial lines with eucalypt timber [PDF, in Spanish]Producción de Madera de Sierra de Alta Calidad con Eucalyptus globulus / Production of high quality Eucalyptus globulus lumber for sawmilling [PDF, in Spanish]Sistemas de Aserrado adecuados para Eucalyptus globulus Europeos afectados por tensiones de crecimiento / Saw-milling Systems for European Eucalyptus globulus affected by growth stresses [PDF, in Spanish]Una propuesta industrial de secad
Eucalyptus, not just timber (II): ornamental foliage production 2007-06-19 05:08:00 One of the most striking aspects of genus Eucalyptus
is their diversity. Sizes, shapes, colours, textures, fragrances. And multiple options for timber
and non timber production, marketing and commercialization. Trees with bad press due to created interests, ignorance on their diversity frequently leads to firm opinion without solid basements.Examples of Eucalyptus species suitable for foliage production in Galicia Some years ago a certain Mr. Francisco Dans del Valle, forestry engineer, judged in 10 minutes a proposal for a Final Project from one of his college engineering students which involved identifying appropriate macro and microclimates for commercial cultivation of Eucalyptus trees able to yield annual non timber products under specially adapted forestry silvicultural regimes. Maybe judging on firm opinions based on limited data, the "impossible, so look for something else" veredict was not exactly very well received. Some years later, after trialling several dozen eucalypt s
Eucalyptus species identification: bark is not always enough 2007-06-19 04:16:00 Eucalyptus species
determination is not just a matter of botanical interest. It can be quite important for its implications in regard to the different genetic pools (be them species, subspecies, provenances, or races) in cultivation. Important issues as cold hardiness (tolerance to winter frosts), growth rates (timber productivity) and physical and chemical properties of wood (timber quality) can depend on this variability, and hence be subject of forestry engineering.Two types of Ash ("Fraxinus wood-like") Eucalyptus: Tasmanian OakTelling Eucalyptus species apart can be difficult or confusing if differentiation criteria are based on a limited amount of variables. Bark type and characteristics can be one of the criteria for species identification, and can be considerably useful sometimes because some species are so strikingly different nothing else is needed. The chances of using bark as "main criterium" are better for areas where eucalypts are introduced species, simply because the n Read more:Eucalyptus
, always
Eucalyptus, not just timber: ecological restoration via phytoremediation 2007-06-15 08:34:00 Trees with bad press, frequently associated to ecological
degradation, soil and/or water depletion or the already too wasted mantra "nothing grows under gum trees", Eucalyptus
can be exactly the opposite. Today we see a case of phytoremediation.Terraces of an abandoned copper mine are progressively afforested with Eucalyptus- Their fast growing new vegetation cover will contribute to minimise soil erosion and lixiviation of hazardous heavy metals on aquifers or river systems by controlling direct rainfall impact effects on bare soils, and by retaining it with their root systems.- Their plasticity adapting to different site conditions allows them to grow on extremely recalcitrant soils for plant colonisation, overcoming extreme acidity and lack on nutrients with a proper preparation of the new planting area.- Their extreme efficiency producing biomass from limited resources allows a quick deposition of organic matter on denuded soils, creating new superficial horizons to substitute th Read more:timber
, restoration
Cold hardy Eucalyptus timber production in Galicia (NW Spain) 2007-06-10 17:02:00 COLD HARDY EUCALYPTUS TIMBER GROWING & HARVESTINGExample of Eucalyptus
tree growth (1): DBH-80 in less than 20 yearsExample of Eucalyptus tree growth (2): DBH-20 in 6 years on a pulpwood silvicultural regimeCold temperate Eucalyptus pulpwood harvest operations in Galicia
1 - Basal logs: DBH-30 or bigger. Debarked on site and arranged on piles along a strip for easy operations of loading and extraction out of the forest.2- Harvest coupe: 9 year old planting of E. nitens at 500 m altitude on easily mechanisable tablelands.3- Tree felling: Chainsaw operator approaching the new target and assessing the best tree felling angle. Depending on logistics of harvest this operation can be performed by an independent worker (as in this case) or by the machine at 5.4- Typical tree: +20 meters high at a relatively high stocking (1100 trees/ha, could be less with no worries). 5 to 7 pulpwood logs per tree, 2 to 4 firewood logs per tree, 1 to 3 residual logs per tree.5- Log processing: 4 step seria Read more:Spain
, timber
Eucalyptus flowers: E. nitens & E. globulus in bloom. Bees and Eucalyptus Hybrids. 2007-06-09 09:30:00 Phenology of E. globulus and E. nitens in Galicia (Northwestern Spain)We have already seen some previous example of eucalypts blooming. Today we will see some more!Examples of flower buds, blooms and infrutescences in Eucalyptus
nitens growing in Galicia (NW Spain)Widely introduced into commercial scale plantings in Galicia as a frost hardy alternative to E. globulus of the inland tablelands and ranges, E. nitens most commonly appears at altitudes between 400 and 900 m, growing in a variety of soil types and site conditions.Its fast growth, small flower size (clusters around 1 cm), relatively delayed maturation age compared to other species and loss of basal branches when planted in timber stands can make spotting its blooms a difficult task without using binoculars. We have observed it blooming from late April well into July, but some variation in these phenologic ranges can happen every year depending on climatic tendences and some variation does occur also at different altitudes.Ex Read more:Hybrids
Natural regeneration in Eucalyptus (4): E. gunnii, E. nicholii & E. blakelyi 2007-06-08 04:34:00 And yet more images on vegetative regeneration in Eucalyptus
, in this case young potted plants experiencing a small coppice trial at nursery. As we had seen by now for planted out forestry species E. delegatensis, E. obliqua, E. globulus and some provenances of E. nitens, for these other forestry/ornamental species as E. blakelyi (Blakely's Red Gum, series Tereticornes), E. nicholii (Narrow Leaved Black Peppermint, section Maidenaria) and E. gunnii (Cider Gum, section Maidenaria too) natural regeneration from both lignotuber and axillary buds is frequent and vigorous.Totally unrelated, some historic/taxonomic notes on these species:- E. gunnii was named by W.J. Hooker honouring J.C. Gunn, two remarkable eucalypt botanists at Kew and Tasmania respectively in the late 19th century.- E. blakelyi was named by J.H. Maiden honouring W.F. Blakely, two of the most prominent eucalypt botanists in the early 20th century and authors respectively of the Critical Revision and A Key to Eucalyptus.- Read more:Natural
Eucalyptus in Morocco: gum trees in the arid lands 2007-06-07 16:59:00 LES EUCALYPTUS AU MAROC: BREVEMENT!Eucalyptus
plantation near Guercif (Morocco
). Photo courtesy of Pierre-Arnaud Chouvy (Photogeography)Eucalyptus: Their place in Moroccan Forests4.8 million hectares of natural forests (5% of territory).- Quercus ilex (Chêne vert, Encina, Live Oak, 29%)- Saharian Acacia species (Acacias sahariens, 21%)- Argania speciosa (Arganier, Oil Tree, 18%)- Tetraclinis articulata (Thuya de Berberie, 11%)- Quercus suber (Chêne liège, Cork Oak, 8%)- Juniperus oxycedrus and others (Genévriers, Junipers, 5%)- Cedrus atlantica (Cèdre de l'Atlas, Atlas Cedar, 3%),- Other forest types (5%).0.5 million hectares of forestry plantations (less 1% of territory)- Conifers 47%- Eucalypts 40%- Broadleaved 13%Transplanting Eucalyptus at Sidi Amira clonal forestry nursery (Morocco). Photo courtesy of Haut Commissariat aux Eaux et Forêts et à la Lutte Contre la Désertification.0.2 million hectares of Eucalyptus plantations (less 0.25% of territory)- E. camaldulensis (Riv Read more:lands
Eucalyptus flowers: the case of paired inflorescences 2007-06-05 03:23:00 Observe any new growth in your eucalypts, where the smallish new leaves are starting to form. You can see there that near the base of a pair of leaves (if juvenile and sessile) or near the petiole of adult leaves, in the axil, new small branchlets that will become new branches are starting to develop.Examples of paired inflorescences in three Eucalyptus
speciesThis new growth is happening from an axillary bud, near the location of a joint between a leaf and a branch. It normally becomes a new branchlet if it is a vegetative bud, which happens all along the life of the eucalypt, and it becomes an inflorescence if it is a reproductive bud, which happens when the plant reaches reproductive maturity.The issue is that this tissue that is dividing into new cells (hence growing) is not "unique". Buds can develop "more than once in the same axil". That is why you can have a new leaf first, and an inflorescence later, growing from the same axil, which is the most common case in Eucalyptus (not
Eucalyptus from seed: some key concepts 2007-10-14 11:51:00 Growing Eucalyptus
from seed: it is in the detailsGustavo Iglesias Trabado GIT Forestry Consulting - Consultoría y Servicios de Ingeniería Agroforestal - www.git-forestry.com - EUCALYPTOLOGICS(click image to enlarge)Propagating Eucalyptus from seed is easy. But easy and efficient are variable concepts that have to be considered depending on plant production targets. Amenity growing and commercial nursery production share the same basic concepts, but a considerable amount of extra details must be considered in each particular case.The basic idea should always be "each seed matters" no matter at what stage of seedling growing you are. The closer the final results are to this key initial idea, the better. But inbetween the ideal maximum efficiency and total failure many results can be satisfactory from both technical and financial points of view.Today we present you a small sequence of basic stages from Eucalyptus seed sowing to final plant dispatch using one of the simplest methods
Eucalyptus in Oregon: Australia in the Pacific Northwest. 2007-10-10 03:15:00 Eucalyptus trials in Oregon
Country: Stan & LeeSome early work with Australia
n trees in the PacificNorthwest
Gustavo Iglesias Trabado GIT Forestry Consulting - Consultoría y Servicios de Ingeniería Agroforestal - www.git-forestry.comEUCALYPTOLOGICSThe cultivation of Eucalyptus in the Pacific Northwest has had to do with trialling of species for relatively a long time now, sometimes as ornamentals and other times as part of forestry hardwood trials. It is however a relatively recent trend, especially if compared to the very old tradition for the cultivation of Eucalyptus in California.One of the steps in this process of increasing eucalypt growing had to do with the works of an Oregonian forester, keen tree grower and adventurous fan of the Australian trees.Lee O. Hunt (1912?-2002), who would later be President of the Douglas County Small Woodland Association, started methodic experimentation at nursery and field trials with 14 species of Eucalyptus back in 1971, focusing in Read more:Eucalyptus
Container Grown Ornamental Eucalyptus: add an Australian touch to your garden (II) 2007-09-30 04:07:00 We bring you today yet other four presentation examples of several types of cold hardy ornamental Eucalyptus
. Some of these gum trees are specimen plants in big containers suitable for display at garden centres or urban landscaping and requiring special care in this case. Others of these container grown plants are suitable for direct planting into convenient garden designs but requiring appropriate maintenance operations post-planting. (click image to enlarge)Cold tolerance: -15ºC to -20ºCMore information? (click image to enlarge)Cold tolerance: -8ºC to -12ºCMore information? (click image to enlarge)Cold tolerance: -15ºC to -20ºCMore information? (click image to enlarge)Cold tolerance: -8ºC to -12ºCMore information? All these eucalypt types can thrive in USDA Zone 8 and some can tolerate USDA Zone 7 winters in gardens with appropriate microclimates. Most Eucalyptus benefit from full sun exposure and suitable protection from wind damage during their first years.Wa Read more:Container
, Grown
, Ornamental
, Australian
, touch
Recommend Site To A Friend
